Land and Climate

Plants and Animals

People

Culture

Swedish management is based on the idea that the individual is both willing and able to do a good job. A Swedish manager tends to think of himself as a coach rather than a commander, and he often delegates tasks and authority to his staff. Swedish organizations, employees on all levels have the freedom to make decisions and solve unexpected problems without asking superiors for permission.

A good manager, according to Swedish standards, is a person who takes advantage of the natural creativity and motivation of his staff. He should lead the emploees not through his power or formal position, but through the principles of cooperation and agreement. Being a good listener is considered to be another important quality. In discussions with his staff, a professional manager should use reason and base his views on facts. Getting emotional when discussing a problem is considered rather inappropriate.

The power distance in Swedish companies is among the smallest in the world, according to a study of 40 countries in 1984. 'Power distance' can be defined as "the extent to which people in a hierarchical situation feel they can and should control the behavior of others, and the extent to which those others are conditioned by reflexes of obedience". In Swedish companies, the concept of power distance is largely replaced by personal responsibility.

Personal status is of relatively small importance in Swedish business life. Managers only rarely give signals of their own status and employees normally don't feel inferior to them. An executive is most of all considered to be a specialist in managing companies and he is therefore not socially superior to a specialist in any other field. In this respect, Sweden seems to differ from many other countries. A further sign of the non-hierarchic (or, better, modestly hierarchic) Swedish company structure is that Swedes normally use their first names at work.

Swedish organizations are probably less rigid than many of their foreign counterparts. Swedes try to solve problems in an informal and pragmatic way, even if it means bypassing one or more layers of executives. In most cases, managers do not feel threatened by this practise, the general idea being that decisions are made in order to achieve a result and not to demonstrate your own position. The same attitude explains the vivid exchange of information in Swedish companies. If people know what is going on, the argument goes, they will feel more involved, and therefore more motivated for work.

Swedish companies usually have a flat and team-oriented structure with few management levels. The result is a simple and direct decision-making process. Matrix organizations are common, since Swedish employees often report to more than one manager.

Swedish executives are generally more willing to take risks than their colleagues in other countries. An international study showed that Sweden had the lowest "uncertainty avoidance index" by far among the countries compared, while Japan had the highest. To generalize this result, one could perhaps say that Swedish managers are not so anxious to do the 'right' thing as long as they do their best.

In countries where managers show a high uncertainty avoidance, employees are often promoted according to seniority. In Sweden, on the other hand, actual work performance tends to be of greater importance. As a result, young men and women are frequently seen in leading positions.

Although Swedish executives are willing to take risks, decisions are often made with great consideration. This is so, because there is one thing that must not be risked: the feeling of consensus and agreement in a company. Heated debates are very unusual at business meetings, and criticism has to be presented in a non-personal and diplomatic way. Unlike the situation in most other countries, Swedish business culture strongly favors compromising.

Being punctual is not only regarded as a sign of respect but also of efficiency and Swedish businessmen will have little understanding for cultural variation in this case. The stressing of the time factor can also be seen in everyday business contacts; it is generally not considered rude to set a deadline for a thing to be done or a decision made.

Punctuality is important not only in working life but also when it comes to purely social gatherings. This means that when a Swede is invited for dinner at eight, he show up at eight!

Foreign businessmen often find that their Swedish colleagues talk too much business , and too little about themselves or their interests. They might draw the conclusion that their partners are simply limited and ignorant. The Swedish businessman, on the other hand, probably wishes his foreign business partner would cut the small talk and come to the point. In Sweden, a direct approach is seen as a sign of efficiency and a wish not to waste the other person's time.

Economy

Transportation, Communication, Education

Pre-school education in Sweden belongs to the public-care sector and is regulated under the Social Services Act of 1980. The aims and capacity of public child-care are decided on by Parliament, whereas the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs is responsible for the preparation of laws and proposals related to child-care nation-wide.

It is the Government's aim that public child-care should be available to all children whose parentswish to use this service. Since 1975, all children aged six and over, as well as handicapped children from the age of four, have been eligible for pre-school education for a minimum of one year. This is optional for the child, but mandatory for the municipal authorities.

Public child-care is jointly financed by the municipality and fees paid by the parents. Only pre-school for 6 year-olds is free of charge. All public child-care is co-educational.

In 1985, Parliament decided that public child-care was to be expanded so that, by 1991, all pre-school children over the age of 18 months could use this service without any temporal delays. In some municipalities,this objective has not yet been fulfilled. Where there are insufficient places, children in need of special support for their development, e.g. children who are physically or mentally handicapped, are given priority in the allocation of pre-school places. Parliament decided, in December 1993, on amendments to the Social Services Act whereby the municipalities shall be obliged to offer all children aged 1-12, whose parents are gainfully employed or studying, a place in public or private child-care, starting on 1st January 1995. About 50% of all children aged 0 to 6 years, and about 30% of all children aged 7 to 12 years, take part in public child care. Child care services take the following forms:

• Day care centres, for children aged 1-6 years, whose parents are gainfully employed or studying. Day-care centres are usually open between 6.30 am and 6.30 p.m., Monday to Friday, all year around.
• Part-time groups, for children aged 4-6 years. These groups operate during the school year and meet for three hours daily, morning or afternoon.
• Open pre-school, for pre-school age children without any other kind of pre-school place. The children attend a few times a week in the company of a parent or family child-minder.
• After-school centres, for children aged 6/7 to 12 years. The purpose of these centres, which are open before and after school, and during school holidays, is to provide after-schoolactivities and learning-options in addition to the school curriculum. The term pre-school is used to denote day-care services, part-time groups and open pre-school. In day-care centres, children are usually divided into mixed-age groups. These groups are made up of either small children up to the age of three, sibling groups (usually 3-6 years), or extended sibling groups which can include children of all pre-school ages as well as younger schoolchildren. The average day-care centre has four groups or sections, each with some 15- 18 children. After-school activities are often an integrated part of school. It is also becoming increasingly common for day-care activities and school to be housed in the same building. In addition, different ways are being tried in facilitating the transition between pre-school and school, i.e. through special courses for 6 year-olds.

Child-care activities are usually operated by the municipalities. As a complement to the activities conducted on municipal premises, the municipality employs family child-care minders to care for children aged 1-12 years in the minder's own home. Private day-care and after- school centres are also becoming increasingly common. In many municipalities, these centres receive a compensatory transfer payment from the municipal funds.

The aims and responsibilities of pre-school and after-school centres have been set out in pedagogic courses issued by the National Board of Health and Welfare. Together with the parents, one of the tasks of the pre-school is to integrate the child into society. Its activities, which should be planned in close co-operation with the parents, should be based largely on the children's background, their interests, previous experiences and special needs. Pre-school covers the following main areas: cultural activities such as language, drama, music and art, painting and pottery; nature studies and community life. These topics manifest themselves throughout the year. Pre-school does not convey school education per se, but it does provide preparatory training for school.

All staff in public child-care institutions are civil servants and employed by the municipalities. Pre-schools are staffed by teachers and child-care attendants, while recreation instructors and child-care attendants work in after-school centres. Pre-school teachers also co-operate in various ways with teachers at the lower level of compulsory school

The director or supervisor of the pre-school is responsible for the regular planning of the centre's work. The staff works in teams where the particular knowledge and interests of each member of staff can be utilised. Parents are encouraged to participate in the activities whenever possible.

The training course for pre-school teachers and recreation instructors takes place at universities and university colleges. The study courses have been extended from 2½ to 3 years with effect from the academic year 1993/94. They lead to a University Diploma in Child and Youth Training. Child-care attendants are trained in special 2-3 year courses in upper secondary school; as of 1995 all these courses will be 3 years in duration. There are also special courses such as those for bilingual students, wanting to work primarily with immigrant children. Most family child-minders in family day-care have followed an introductory course of 90-100 hours or a lengthier training, such as the child attendant's course.

Responsibility for in-service training rests with the municipalities but is not compulsory; the availability and content of such training can vary enormously from one area to another. In some places, pre-school teachers and school teachers are trained together.

Compulsory education in Sweden takes the form of a nine year comprehensive school for children aged 7-16. However, since 1991 children have the right to begin the compulsory school at the age of six years, if their parents so desire and if the municipality has the capacity to provide this service. The option should be available in all municipalities in the school year 1997/98. In the school year 1992/93, 70 % of the municipalities were able to offer children the option of starting school at the age of six. In 1994, 7.5% of the pupils starting school that year were six years old or younger. The Government has had a special commissioner investigating the consequences of extending compulsory schooling to ten years. The commissioner's final report has been sent for review to the government agencies and municipalities concerned.

Compulsory elementary schooling was formally introduced in Sweden in 1842. A process of reform, destined to take many years, began in the 1940's with the aim of expanding compulsory schooling. The nine year compulsory comprehensive school was decided on by Parliament in 1962 and fully implemented in the schools, 1972-73. Today it is regulated by the Education Act of 1985 and amendments of 1991,1992,1993 and 1994 when a new national curriculum for compulsory basic shools came into operation.

The compulsory school system comprises compulsory basic school, Sami school for Sami-speaking children in the north of the country, specials schools for children with certain handicaps (for example, children with impaired hearing, vision and speech disabilities) and compulsory school for mentally handicapped.

Almost all pupils (over 98%) attend schools run by the municipalities, usually in their local area. The Education Act states, however, that parents and pupils should be able to make a choice concerning compulsory education. To the extent that it is possible, parents' wishes for their children to attend a particular public school within the municipality should be considered. Parents and pupils should also be free to choose between public and private schools. As from the school year 1993/94 a pupil can attend a public school outside the home municipality. The municipalities are obliged to provide pupils with all the materials necessary for school work. particular emphasis is put on textbooks, etc. covering essential parts of a specific subject or a group of subjects. All compulsory schooling is co-educational and provided free of charge. The school year is divided into two terms, comprising in total of 40 weeks with not less than 178 school days (Monday-Friday) and 12 weeks of holiday. The Autumn term lasts from the end of August to the end of December, the Spring term from the beginning of January to the beginning of June. The exact dates vary from year to year and from one municipality to another

Attendance is compulsory for maximum of 190 days per year and eight hours per day (six hours in the first years of school). Under certain circumstances however, pupils can be exempt from compulsory teaching. This applies, for example, to pupils belonging to a certain religious community, which is authorised by the Government to arrange instruction in religious studies corresponding to the instructions given in school.

There are both larger and smaller schools, the latter mainly in sparsely populated areas, where classes can be made up of pupils from two or three different grades. Upper level schools are normally larger, with 150-600 pupils and two, three or more classes per grade.

Pupils mostly attend the same school all the way through cumpulsory basic school. There are specially trained teachers for music and, very often, handicraft subjects, pictorial studies and physical education. In addition to class or subject teachers, remedial teachers and pupil welfare staff, e.g. a social welfare officer, psychologist and school nurse, can be attached to a working unit, set up by two classes or more. The staff making up every unit of this kind constitute a working team with the task of planning, developing and evaluating the work to be done - a process in which the pupils are also entitled to participate.

The alterations to the legislative framework for the school system that have taken effect in recent years have involved fundamental changes in the control and organisation of the schools, as well as in the conditions under which individual schools are able to operate. In December 1993, parliament adopted legislation laying down new curricular guidelines for the whole school system, geared to the new objective and result-related governing system for schools. As further described below, this is an extensive changes in the curriculum, syllabi and time-schedules as well and in the marking system of compulsory school. The new system was implemented in the 1995-96 school year for grades 1-7 of compulsory school, compulsory school for the mentally disabled and special school, and for the whole of Sami school. The reform will be fully implemented as of the 1997/98 school year.

The curriculum contains binding regulations for the school and thus steers its activity. The curriculum sets out the basic values of the school, its tasks and provides objectives and guidelines for the school. In the curriculum, emphasis is placed on the conveyance of knowledge, norms and values as the primary objectives of the school. The objectives of education, to be pursued through teaching, are expressed as the aims of education; and the objectives which all pupils must be given a chance of achieving, as the aims of educational requirements. The objectives are formulated in such a way that their achievement can be evaluated.

The compulsory school is no longer divided into levels. Instead, the new national syllabi for each subject are to state the objectives which are to be achieved by the end of the fifth and ninth year of school. This will provide an opportunity for nation-wide evaluation of school achievements after the fifth year. The syllabi will also indicate the aims of education as well as the purpose, structure and character of each subject, including each individual subject within natural science and social science. Teachers will, however, be given greater freedom in planning their teaching and in choosing their working methods and subject matter.

In order to ensure equivalent standard throughout the country, a timetable has been laid down by Parliament and has been attached to the Education Act as from 1st July 1995. It will indicate a minimum guaranteed teacher or supervisor led instruction time in units of 60 minutes over the 9 years, divided between different subjects and groups of subjects. The local educational authorities are free to decide on a more extensive timetable. The timetable also provides increased scope for individual electives for close study of one or more subjects. Teachers themselves, within the framework of the timetable, will decide the allocation of teaching time between different grades. The only restriction will be that imposed by the syllabus assessment at the end of the fifth and ninth year. In the new timetable more time is allotted to courses in second foreign languages. Among other things, Spanish is introduced as an alternative to German and French among the optional subjects that each municipality is obliged to offer. Local or individual electives may also include a third foreign language.

The curriculum makes clear the responsibilities incurred by all members of the school community. It also aims at strengthening the opportunities and duties for pupils and their families to be involved in decisions in school matters. The principals of the compulsory school have been given an overall responsibility for educational guidance. They have to ensure that the pupils obtain guidance to the offered choices of education at the school as well as guidance to further studies and vocational training.

The new curriculum will be common to the whole of the compulsory school system. However, some adjustments will be made to educational goals in order to accommodate special needs among pupils in special schools and school for the mentally handicapped.

The new marking system is to be objective and achievement-related instead of relative. It will be geared to special achievement criteria which are to be devised in conjunction with the syllabi so as to make it clear to teachers and pupils which achievements are necessary for the award of a certain mark. Final awards will be on a three-point scale: Pass, Pass with distinction and Pass with exceptional distinction.

Comparability will be achieved by means of national tests. Diagnostic tests in reading, writing and arithmetic should be administered in all municipal schools at the end of the second year. All municipal schools are also to administer subject tests in Swedish, English and mathematics at the end of the fifth and ninth years. Swedish tests are also to be administered at independent schools. All pupils will receive a leaving certificate.

To qualify as a teacher a person must have completed a Swedish teacher training programme or equivalent certification from another Member State of the European Union. Unqualified teachers may be employed for a certain length of time if qualified staff are not available. Teachers are civil servants. They normally hold posts with conditional tenure, full time or part time.

Teachers in compulsory school are trained at universities and university colleges. The majority of teachers of general subjects now in service have been trained in the following way: class teachers for grades 1-3 and 4-6 have completed separate integrated training courses lasting 2½ years and 3 years, respectively; whilst subject teachers for grades 7-9 have a university or college degree in their subject(s), plus a diploma awarded on completion of a one-year course in the theory and practise of teaching.

A new integrated study programme was introduced in the academic year 1988/89. There are two branches in the programme: teachers of grades 1-7 and 4-9 respectively. A one-year course in the theory and practise of teaching is common to all students. Training for grades 1-7 takes 3½-4 years. Students can choose between three different variations of the basic curriculum and may also specialise in one of two different subject areas. Trainees for grades 4-9 may specialise in one of five different areas, and study between 3½ and 4½ years, depending on their specialisation. They could also extend their subject studies to qualify for service in the upper secondary school. As from the academic year 1992/93 there is an alternative route for teachers of grades 4-9, where subject studies in different combinations are followed by one year of practical pedagogical training.

Remedial teachers follow an extended study programme, lasting for one year or more, after their basic training as compulsory school teachers. Teachers of practical and artistic subjects are trained at special university colleges. They can specialize in one area but are also able, within a training programme for compulsory school teachers, to opt for a combination of their main subject with one or two others. Supervised teaching practice, equivalent to one term's full-time study, is a requirement in all teacher training.

Responsibility for in-service training is divided between the State and municipalities. The National Agency for Education must ensure that in-service training courses are available in all parts of the country, whilst the local education authorities are obliged by law to ensure that all school staff are adequately trained. For professionally active teachers universities and colleges arrange in-service training courses of varying length, from one week up to 20 weeks. The local education committee decides which teachers to send. In addition, all teachers are obliged to take part in school-based in-service training for five days a year, and in training activities after school hours.

Upper secondary education in Sweden has passed through a period of reforms and developments in the last 25 years. In 1970 the then existing different types of schools for theoretical and vocational education at upper secondary level were amalgamated into one school, gymnasieskolan, designed to accommodate all young adults. The final leaving examination of the former gymnasium for university preparatory studies had been abolished two years earlier. During the 1970's and 1980's, a number of measures were taken to improve upper secondary schooling so as to match the needs of the labour market and those of higher education with the wishes and requirements of young people. At the end of the 1980's a reform of the structure of the upper secondary school was initiated, which in 1991 led to major alterations to the 1985 Education Act. A new system of upper secondary education was introduced in the 1992/93 school year and was implemented by the school year 1995/96.
The alterations to compulsory schooling have been accompanied by changes in the curriculum and marking system of the non-compulsory schools.

Since 1st July 1992, municipalities are obliged, under the Education Act, to provide upper secondary schooling for all pupils leaving compulsory school. This applies to all residents up to and including the first six months of the year of their 20th birthday. Over 95% of compulsory school leavers apply for upper secondary school and nearly all of them are accepted.. However, in accordance with a decision by Parliament in Autumn 1993, in order to be eligible for upper secondary school, as of the 1998/99 school year, pupils will be required to have pass grades in Swedish, English and mathematics from the compulsory school.

Most upper secondary school studies take place in school coming under municipal responsibility. Studies in agriculture, forestry, horticulture and certain caring occupations, however, take place in schools run by the county councils (landstinget). All upper secondary schooling is co-educational and provided free of charge. There are also a number of independent (private) upper secondary schools. Upper secondary schools are generally located in larger municipalities and the pupils usually come from several different municipalities. The large upper secondary schools mostly include a variety of study courses and courses. Certain courses, e.g. physical education, are organised for pupils from all over the country.

The number of pupils varies between 300 and 1500. Various types of education within one school can be located to different buildings, and in many places upper secondary education pupils and students in municipal adult education share the same building. Sparsely populated areas have upper secondary schools which collaborate with the senior level of compulsory school and with an upper secondary school in a larger municipality. The number of pupils per class does not usually exceed 30 in theoretical study courses and courses, and 16 in practical vocational ones.

Most of the independent upper secondary schools are found in the major urban areas and there are great variations between them in terms of courses on offer. The average number of pupils in independent upper secondary schools is approximately 100, as compared with about 700 in municipal schools. The school year has the same allocations of time in upper secondary school as those in compulsory school.

In the new upper secondary school all education is organised in study courses of three years duration. The new vocational courses are designed to confer more thorough knowledge than the pre-reform vocational studies. The pupils are also given increased choice with respect to the content of their own education, as well as greater possibilities to influence the teaching methods and the forms of evaluation. Specialised courses as they exist at present will be abolished.

There are 16 nationally determined programmes, 14 of which are primarily vocationally orientated and two preparing primarily for university studies. Most national courses are divided into branches that are drawn up centrally, municipalities may choose to set up local branches adapted to local needs and conditions.

The educational aims of the national programmes are set out in programme goals. The courses must give a broad basic education within the vocational field as well as providing the foundation for continued studies on completion of the upper secondary school. Pupils who have requirements other than those provided for within the national programmes can opt to follow a specially designed programme, for which the pupil, in co-operation with the school, designs an individual syllabus for the whole period of study. For pupils who are unsure of what to study there can also be individual courses of varying length and content. After having studied in an individual programme the pupil may transfer to one of the national courses, a specially designed programme or apprenticeship training. The third year can be exchanged for a supplementary courses to obtain, for example, skills other than those provided in the programme which a student chose initially.

The apprenticeship training-programme comprises vocational training organised by the employers involved as well as education in the upper secondary school, mainly in core subjects.

All pupils who are entitled to education in a national programme can apply to any school in the country. Municipalities must offer a comprehensive selection of national programmes and admissions capacity for the various courses must be adapted to pupils' preferences. If a municipality is unable to provide all courses, the local authority can enter into agreement to co-operate with other municipalities. Two or several municipalities which together provide education in a national programme constitute a co-operation region for that programme. The national programmes and the national and local branches are to be built up from courses within different areas. A subject syllabus can consist of a number of short courses both within the programme selected as well as from other programmes. Course goals are set out in syllabi which are common to upper secondary schools and municipal adult education.

Core subject Min. guaranteed tuition-time per three-year programme in hours: Swedish 200
English 110
Mathematics 110
Civics 90
Sport and health studies 80
Nature studies 30
Religious studies 30
Aesthetic studies 30

In addition to the core subjects, pupils take subjects which are specific to their programme. All pupils are also to carry out a project during their course of studies. In all courses time is set aside for local supplements or practical work connected with subjects, as well as for individual choice to allow pupils to choose additional subjects and courses within the national programmes. The timetables, which are now attached to the Education Act, express in units of 60 minutes the minimum guaranteed teacher or supervisor-led instruction time. This is 2.400 hours for the vocationally oriented programmes and 2.180 hours for academically oriented programmes, over the three years. The local education authority of school decides when different subjects are to be studied and how long the lessons should be.

In the vocationally oriented courses, at least 15% of the pupils' total time is to be spent on training at a place of work. The school will be responsible for procuring such training opportunities and for supervising pupils during this training.

The new common curriculum, with specific objectives set for each type of school, came into effect 1st July 1994. As in the new curriculum for compulsory school, the objectives stated in the curriculum for the non-compulsory schools are of two kinds. The set of basic values are to influence the activities of the school and the demands imposed on pupils and school staff will be set out in six different sections: knowledge; norms and values; pupil responsibility and influence; choice of education - work and civic life; assessment and grades; responsibility of the head teacher.

Grades are goal-related and are rewarded on a four-point scale, Fail, Pass, Pass with distinction and Pass with with special distinciton.The student's achievements are related to the goals defined in the syllabus for the course. An upper secondary school leaving certificate is awarded to all pupils after the end of his schooling, summarising the awards obtained for all courses completed.

4. Higher Education

Higher education is divided in undergraduate studies and post-graduate studies and reSearch (in Swedish). In 1977, practically all post-secondary education, i.e. all university-type education as well as non-academic colleges for different kinds of vocational education and training, was incorporated into one system. This system, högskolan, included a strong element of national planning and regulation; and the aims and length as well as the location and financing of most study courses were laid down by Parliament. Until 1989, the State also established the curricula for each programme.

After the change of Government in Autumn 1991, a major reform was initiated, aiming at a deregulation of the unitary system of higher education and greater autonomy to the individual institutions of higher education. The reform was adopted by Parliament in 1992, and on 1 July 1993 a new Higher Education Act came into effect. It stated that the capacity of different courses and the allocation of grants between institutions will be influenced by the requirements of the individual students and the achievements of the individual institutions in terms of both quality and quantity. The organisation of study and range of courses on offer are determined locally and students have been given increased freedom of choice over study route within the framework of a new internationally valid Degree Ordinance, attached to the 1993 Higher Education Ordinance. The purpose of the institutions of higher education, as stated in the Higher Education Act of 1993, is to provide education and carry out reSearch (in Swedish) and artistic development; there should be a close connection between these two main duties. Emphasis is placed on quality and the effective use of available resources. Equality between men and women should be observed in all aspects of higher education. Universities and university colleges should also promote an understanding of other countries and international relationships.

State institutions are:

• The Universities of Uppsala, Lund, Göteborg, Stockholm, Umeå and Linköping
• University colleges in different parts of the country,
• Single-faculty institutions, i.e. Karolinska Institute (Medicine and Dentistry), the Royal Institute of Technology, Chalmers University of Technology. The Stockholm Institute of Education and the University College of Physical Education and Sports,
• Smaller university colleges for various areas of Arts.

Under the auspices of the country councils there are twenty-six colleges of Health Sciences, which provide preparatory courses for work in the paramedical professions.

State-run universities and university colleges are central government agencies and their employees are civil servants.

• For further information and links

To be admitted to higher education in Sweden, a student must first fulfill the general eligibility requirements which are common to all programmes or courses, and then meet the specific eligibility requirements which are usually imposed on applicants by the individual university or university college. The latter vary according to the field of education.

The general eligibility requirements for undergraduate education are the successful completion of a 3 year national programme of the upper secondary school or other equivalent Swedish of foreign education or the acquisition of the equivalent level of knowledge, e.g. through work experience. Applicants with a mother tongue other than one of the Nordic languages shall possess the requisite knowledge of Swedish, acquired e.g. through a preparatory course in Swedish of one year's duration.

Responsibility for the admission and selection of students rests with the institutions themselves. Within a generally formulated framework, they are able to decide what selection criteria shall be used for admission to their courses and whether the admission procedure shall be carried out locally or by using the central service function provided by the National Agency for Higher Education. For the selection of students one or more of the following criteria are applicable: school marks; results on the university aptitude test (a national, non-compulsory test) which is common for all institutions of higher education or a special test (e.g. interviews), or previous education and work experience.

During the 1970's and 1980's the Swedish higher education system had a nearly constant capacity with a total number of entrants of between 40.000 and 45.000 per year in spite of considerable increase in the demand for higher education. Since 1991, however, there has been a steady expansion of the total number of places for undergraduate studies and by the mid-1990s the increase of students will be about 30 percent.

Roughly 30% of young persons go on to higher education after completion of their compulsory and upper secondary schooling. Apart from students coming straight from school, the post-secondary student population includes a relatively large proportion of mature students, i.e. students who have previously acquired various amounts of work experience.

Higher education is free of charge. The post-secondary study assistance scheme applies to students in undergraduate education at universities, university colleges and certain other establishments, as well as to students aged 20 and over attending upper secondary school and other forms of upper secondary schooling. This study assistance consists of a non-repayable grant plus a larger repayable loan, awarded for both full-time and part-time studies.

The academic year comprises 40 weeks, divided into two semesters. The Autumn term usually runs from the middle or end of August to mid-January, the Spring term runs from mid-January to the beginning of June. There is usually a two-week teaching break at Christmas.

Courses/Qualifications

In the new system of undergraduate education, students are able to choose their study route freely and to combine different subject courses into a degree. For study intended to lead to a degree, courses may be combined to form an educational programme, if the university or university college so wishes.

The requirements for various courses of study are set out in the Degree Ordinance. All courses and educational courses also have to follow curricula, established by the individual university or university college. Undergraduate studies are available in the form of study courses or as single-subject courses. A first degree programme will generally take between 2 and 5½ years to complete. The single-subject courses vary in length from 5 weeks to 1½ years.

The average number of study hours is 40 hours per week for full-time studies, including individual studies and group work. Study time is measured in points; one week's full-time study is equivalent to one point and one term's full-time study to 20 points

Instruction takes the form of lectures to large groups (up to 300 students) and seminars of about 30 students. Students are also expected to participate actively in group work, laboratory work and seminars. The language of instruction is usually Swedish, but a great deal of the compulsory course literature is in English.

A number of courses include practical training in the relevant industry or the public sector. Sometimes the practical training takes place during the summer holidays . In many courses a large part of the final term is devoted to work on a degree project or thesis. Students work on these projects individually or in small groups.

There are two kinds of first degrees - general degrees and professional ones. The professional degrees are awarded upon completion of courses of varying length (2 to 5½ years), leading to specific professions, e.g. University Diploma in medicine or Education. The general degrees are:

• Diploma after studies amounting to not less than 80 points (2 years of study)
• Bachelor's degree after completion of at least 120 points (at least 3 years of study), including 60 points in the major subject and a thesis of 10 points.
• Master's degree after studies amounting to not less than 160 points (at least 4 years of study), including 80 points in the major subject and one thesis of 20 points or two of 10 points.

All courses are subject to continuos examination, written and/or oral. There are, however, no final examinations which cover an entire three or five-year programme. This means that the students have to be prepared to give proof of the knowledge they have acquired every three or four week.

Marks are generally awarded on a three-level scale: Fail, Pass and Pass with distinction. Some courses are only graded Fail and Pass and some faculties, i.e. Engineering and Law, have other grading systems.

As from the academic year 1993/94, each university and university college is entitled to decide on the establishment of chairs and the appointment of staff. The teaching staff are grouped into the following main categories: professors, senior lectures, lectures and reSearch (in Swedish) assistants. Since 1986 duties of different kinds - teaching, reSearch (in Swedish), personal study, educational counselling and administration - have been included in the same appointment. Professors have some teaching commitments but are mainly engaged in reSearch (in Swedish). Senior lectures must have a doctorate and be active in both reSearch (in Swedish) and teaching. lecturers are not required to have a doctorate. To be appointed, they must also have displayed proficiency in teaching undergraduates.

Swedish higher education has been shaped by historical, social, economic and intellectual forces. Some of these are peculiar to Sweden, like a long tradition of neutrality and the pervasive influence of social democracy. Others apply more widely, like the shift from industrial and post-industrial society and the movement towards postmodernism. The last reform of higher education in Sweden took place at a time when neutrality was still unchallenged, social democracy seemed to represent the most advanced form of modern society, industrial growth appeared to be inexorable and faith in the scientific tradition was still unchallenged.

Today, with the end of the Cold War, the rapid movement towards Western European unity and diminishing Third World ideals, Sweden's traditional neutrality needs to be redefined. The rise of neo-conservatism has pushed social democracy on the defensive. The high-technology revolution, especially in telecommunications and intelligent systems, has disrupted old industrial patterns. And the sanctity of science is being challenged both by powerful "green" movements and also by the intellectual incoherence of postmodernism.

Swedish universities and colleges, therefore, have to operate in a less certain world. A redefined neutrality may make it easier to pursue closer academic collaboration in Europe. Higher education's egalitarian instincts may be modified if social democracy becomes a less dominant , or less confident, force. And post-industrialism and postmodernism point to a volatile and uncertain future. It is against this background that the detailed reform of the system must be considered.

Swedish higher education has been a unified system since 1977. Compared to most other European systems there is a strong sense of a united mission and shared purposes. But important expectations remain, most notably health colleges which have been left outside this unified system and music, drama and other art colleges, which have remained semi-detached.

A more important exception, however, is the division of the system into reSearch (in Swedish) and teaching institutions, the universities, and colleges which only provide undergraduate education. The former have better qualified teachers and more of them. As a result they can offer a richer and more varied undergraduate experience. Also, because reSearch (in Swedish) budgets have increased faster than teaching budgets, universities are much better funded.

Another exception to the unity of Swedish higher education is that even within the universities important divisions remain between the traditional faculties and the newer professional schools incorporated after 1977. Here are signs that the equilibrium of the system is now being threatened by demands from colleges for fairer treatment or even full university status. Sweden may need to be faced with a difficult choice - either to create a fully integrated system or to make explicit its present stratification.

The relationship between reSearch (in Swedish) and teaching is crucial to undergraduate education for two reasons - first, there is a world wide trend to spend more on reSearch (in Swedish) and less on teaching, so there is a risk that undergraduate education will be starved of resources; and secondly, teaching needs to be informed and refreshed by reSearch (in Swedish).

In Sweden there is unusually strong bias to reSearch (in Swedish) and against teaching. Almost two-thirds of the system's budget is for reSearch (in Swedish), and universities during the 1980's became reSearch (in Swedish) institutions also engaged in undergraduate education rather than the other way round. Also reSearch (in Swedish) and teaching are more strictly segregated in Sweden than in many other countries, therefore making it more difficult for the former to inform the latter. Many students complain that their teachers are not sufficiently involved in reSearch (in Swedish) and that undergraduate education suffers.

There is a three-way split in the Swedish system. First, universities are pushed too far towards reSearch (in Swedish), and colleges have to concentrate too narrowly on teaching (although some have been successful in attracting external reSearch (in Swedish) grants). If the latter were funded to carry out reSearch (in Swedish), their budgets would more than double. Secondly, within universities there is a division between faculty boards, which manage reSearch (in Swedish), and study course committees, which handle the bulk of undergraduate education. The department gets squeezed in the middle.

Finally, the academic profession is split into professors and other reSearch (in Swedish)ers, and lecturers responsible for teaching. Although many professors do teach and most lecturers are involved in reSearch (in Swedish), the division impoverishes undergraduate education. Professors should be academic leaders, and lecturers need more time to engage in scholarship, if not front course reSearch (in Swedish).

Although most students are following study courses, there is a strong prejudice against them. Courses are seen as too narrow, too vocational and too inflexible. They are also accused of fostering passive learning and an anti-reSearch (in Swedish) culture. The solution, say the critics of courses, is to allow students to follow single courses, a return to the pre 1977 pattern.

Many of these criticisms are unfair. Firstly, many students still do follow single courses, especially in the traditional arts and sciences and in universities. Secondly, no one denies that professional education has to be organised in courses. Thirdly many courses, especially in universities and larger collages, give students a good choice of elective courses. Fourthly, many courses far from being anti-intellectual, coher far superiorly to that of single courses. The best approach is to reduce the sharp distinction between courses and single courses. The former should be more loosely constructed with more electives and better transfer arrangements; the latter should be organised as flexible units within a lager undergraduate programme, especially with the reintroduction of the BA degree.

The quality of undergraduate teaching is impossible to assess by truly objective measures. But personal observation and the widespread concern about undergraduate education suggest that standards are already high. There is consensus that active learning should be preferred to passive teaching; that students should be guided towards intellectual autonomy as well as becoming highly trained experts; and that critical skills should be encouraged. But there is less agreement about what needs to be done to achieve these objectives.

1. The suggestion that Swedish students are over-taught is, at best, half-true. A greater problem seems to be the comparative lack of seminars in which teachers and students interact. However, there are many interesting experiments in ways to encourage independent study, to use new technology in teaching, and to apply the lessons learnt in distance education to undergraduate education as a whole.
2. The total number of students has remained fairly stable in Sweden during the past decade. but the number of qualified school leavers has increased by almost 50 percent. This has led to growing selectivity. The demand from society and the economy for graduates is likely to exceed the supply capacity of the system, especially in the first decade of the next century. On both counts there is a strong case for increasing the number of student places. Recent changes in student admissions are likely to produce a better fit between applicant and places, because it may be easier to measure future potential rather than past performance; to encourage more school leavers to go straight into higher education; and to create a more clearly defined constituency of mature students. But the system still needs to become more open.
3. There are many complaints about the Swedish pattern of short consecutive courses followed by frequent examinations. It is said to encourage shallow learning and a content-dominated curriculum. Also, most examinations are graded pass/fail and may be too easy to pass. On the whole students support the present pattern while teachers have mixed views. However, there is a trend to longer courses and more complex examinations that test conceptual and summative skills. Many existing examinations are imaginatively designed. A wholesale move to end-of-session examinations graded into classes of pass is not practicable.
4. Evaluation is poorly developed in the Swedish system. Market signals are weak; state sponsored evaluation is limited; and professional evaluation, such as peer-review, regarded with suspicion. However, students are active in evaluating undergraduate education and there are interesting examples of experiments in which student feed-back has been formally incorporated into course structures. Employers are more concerned with quantity than quality, but they support greater internationalisation of undergraduate education and also more emphasis on problem-solving. The state sees its role as quality evaluation, leaving quality management to institutions, but the two are hard to separate and the state has few tools, apart from quantitative performance indicators which it distrusts, to evaluate quality. Finally, in institutions and among teachers there is suspicion of both performance indicators and peer review.
5. There is strong support, especially among students and in smaller colleges, to make teacher training compulsory for lecturers. This demand is difficult to reconcile with the parallel demand that they are more active in reSearch (in Swedish). Also, over-organised pedagogy may inhibit active learning by students. A better approach is a combination of introductory courses for new lectures, in-service training, and more emphasis on "teaching cultures".
6. The recent creation of a council for the renewal of undergraduate education is a significant initiative. Its work is likely to provide a focus for the scattered efforts in universities and collages to raise the status of teaching. The key to change, however, is to see undergraduate education as an intellectual responsibility, not just a pedagogical challenge.
7. Equal opportunities, surprisingly in view of Sweden's record on women's rights, are seen as a significant component in the debate about undergraduate education. Yet the rapid increase in female students is one of the most striking phenomena in all higher education systems. This has led to difficulties and tensions (most notably, by highlighting the under-representation of women among professors and lecturers). But it also opens up hopeful possibilities.
8. Many universities and colleges have established so-called "common core" courses. Some are aimed to introduce students to higher education by emphasising the break with secondary school; others have more ambitious objectives, to emphasise the wholeness of knowledge or to raise difficult philosophical and ethical questions. The latter may mark an important change in Swedish higher education; a turn-back to liberal learning that echoes the wider changes in Swedish and Western society.

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References: Compton’s Interactive Encyclopedia

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